Book Review: The Memory Endures

It has become my personal tradition, since starting this website, of writing about the Battle of Arnhem every September.  This year, I decided to write a review of The Memory Endures:  The Story of a Grenadier Guardsman and Pioneer of the Parachute Regiment, 1937 – 1945, by Reg Curtis (1920 – 2016).  This is the autobiography of one of the original members of the British Airborne Forces who fought throughout the war, including the Battle of Arnhem.

Reg Curtis was born in South East London into a family with a strong military tradition; his father and uncle were Army veterans.  Young Reg wanted to join London’s Metropolitan Police, but believed a term of service in the Army, particularly the Guards, would greatly improve his chances; he enlisted in 1937.

The Guards have always preferred tall recruits; at 6 feet, 2 inches, Curtis easily met their standard.  Curtis underwent training at the Guards Depot and was posted to the 3^rd Battalion, The Grenadier Guards.  He participated in numerous ceremonial functions; the Guards’ emphasis on drill and a polished appearance instilled Curtis with a strong sense of self-discipline.

When war with Germany was declared in September, 1939, Curtis’ battalion was sent to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force.  During the winter, they patrolled the area between the Maginot Line and the Siegfried Line; while they avoided contact with the Germans, they performed reconnaissance and reported on enemy activity.

The Germans launched their onslaught of France and the Low Countries in May, 1940.  The 3^rd Grenadier Guards defended as best they could, but suffered heavy casualties from enemy artillery and aerial bombing; the survivors were ordered to make their way to Dunkirk.  During the long retreat, Curtis saw a number French civilians who had been killed or injured; whenever possible, he stopped to bandage the wounded before moving on.

Curtis spent five days at Dunkirk waiting for his turn to board ship for England.  During that period, he and others were sent out to bury the dead, assist the wounded, and search for rations and ammunition.  He was finally assigned to a minesweeper; exhausted, he slept for the entire journey back to England.

Only about 50 men from 3^rd Battalion made it back from France.  Curtis was made Lance Corporal and sent on a section leader’s course.  He was granted leave upon receiving news that his parents’ London home had been destroyed by German bombing; fortunately, his family had been in a bomb shelter and survived.

One morning on parade, an announcement was made that a “new kind of soldier” was wanted for training in parachuting.  Curtis thought about the civilian losses in France and the bombing raids at home; he volunteered and was accepted.  Prior to leaving his battalion, he was interviewed by the commanding officer who told him to remember the traditions and high standards of the Guards.

Curtis joined L Troop, No. 2 Commando, which had been selected for parachute training.  British military parachuting was in its infancy; techniques and equipment were still being developed and perfected.  There were a number of injuries and even deaths during those early days, and the volunteers must have been extraordinarily brave.  One training apparatus in particular was abandoned as it caused more injuries than actual jumps had.  The only available airplane was the obsolete Whitley bomber; on his first jump, Curtis bloodied his nose dropping through the hole in the fuselage floor, an injury so common that it earned its own name, “ringing the bell”.  Curtis was injured again during a demonstration drop put on for the press, which should have been canceled because of bad weather.  The strong winds caused Curtis’ parachute to oscillate; he had a hard landing which knocked him unconscious and put him in the hospital for a week.

Making a parachute jump from a converted bomber. This photograph from 1944 shows a drop from an Albemarle, which had a much larger aperture than the earlier Whitley. Reg Curtis, like many others, bloodied his nose on a Whitley jump. Photograph from the Imperial War Museum (CH 13190).

Curtis also underwent survival training in the Scottish Highlands in the harsh winter, living off the land, having to hunt game to supplement the meager tinned rations provided.  Other training involved long marches and runs, as well as nighttime navigation.  On some exercises, No. 2 Commando took on the role of enemy parachutists; the commandos learned valuable lessons in unconventional warfare but also gave regular units and the Home Guard experience in responding to an invasion.

Curtis described his comrades as “Para-Commandos”, reflecting the original role of the Airborne as raiding forces.  For his height, Curtis was given the nickname “Lofty”.  Eventually, No. 2 Commando was renamed the 11^th Special Air Service Battalion, then renamed again as 1^st Parachute Battalion in 1941.  Two additional battalions were created; together, they formed the 1^st Parachute Brigade.  Curtis was part of the Airborne Forces during the establishment of the Parachute Regiment and the adoption of the maroon beret and Pegasus insignia.  While the men came from all across the Army, they developed their own Esprit de Corps; jump-trained engineers, signalers and medics joined the Brigade and earned the respect of the parachute infantry.

Photograph dated 1941 showing three “Para-Commandos” on a training exercise; Reg Curtis is the corporal on the right. Photo from the IWM archive (H 10972).

In November, 1942, 1^st Parachute Brigade was shipped to North Africa to support 1^st Army and the Operation Torch landings.  They landed in Algiers and established themselves at an airfield near Maison Blanche.  Each of the three battalions performed its own operation; 1^st Battalion captured the enemy airstrip at Souk-el-Arba, Tunisia, then moved on to Beja and Medjez-el-Bab, where they spent several weeks patrolling and skirmishing with the enemy.  The Brigade spent several months in Tunisia fighting as standard infantry, typically wherever the fighting was heaviest.  At Djebel Mansour, Curtis fought until he ran out of ammunition; he then helped a wounded comrade across the difficult terrain to an aid post.  The Brigade suffered a number of casualties in Tunisia, but inflicted far greater losses on the enemy. 

Once victory in North Africa had been achieved, it was time for the next objective:  Sicily.  The Allies launched their invasion in July, 1943.  After the beachhead was secured, 1^st Parachute Brigade dropped onto the island to capture the Primosole Bridge near the Catania Plain.  The nighttime drop was badly scattered; Curtis, like many others, found himself miles from the objective and had to make his way in the dark towards the bridge.  The paratroopers were able to capture their objective, but after expending nearly all of their ammunition, they were driven from the bridge.  Eventually, the ground forces of 8^th Army linked up with the Brigade and recaptured the bridge.  Once again, the paratroopers had fought hard against a strong enemy, but paid a terrible price.

After Sicily, the Brigade returned to Britain to recruit and train replacement troops.  1^st Airborne Division prepared for numerous operations in the summer of 1944, while 6^th Airborne was fighting in Normandy.  They finally had their chance in September, with Operation Market Garden.  The operation started well enough, with good weather and little resistance at the drop zones.  While 2^nd Parachute Battalion was to capture Arnhem bridge, 1^st Battalion was directed to form a defensive line along the town’s northern border.

1^st Parachute Battalion never reached its destination.  The Germans reacted quickly to the British drop and formed blocking lines along likely approaches; it was not long before 1^st Battalion came under heavy fire.  The Battalion attempted to break contact with the enemy by heading south, then pushing forward again towards Arnhem.  They reached the outskirts of the town and took cover in the buildings, but found themselves up against tanks, self-propelled guns, and dug-in machine guns.

During the confused fighting, Curtis was badly wounded; a bullet hit him just above the knee and shattered his right leg.  Curtis was placed on a jeep and evacuated to the dressing station at the Hotel Tafelberg in Oosterbeek.  He spent several uncomfortable days at the Tafelberg; the medical staff did all they could, but as the battle progressed, the front line moved uncomfortably close to the dressing station.  Eventually, the Tafelberg was overrun; the medical staff and hundreds of wounded, including Curtis, became prisoners.

For the next two months, Curtis was moved from one hospital to another.  Attempts to set his shattered leg failed, and the decision was finally made to amputate.  Fortunately, after the operation Curtis’ overall health improved greatly.  Curtis was taken to a series of prisoner of war camps, until finally liberated by American forces in April 1945.

I have read a number of personal accounts by veterans of the 1^st Airborne Division; The Memory Endures is the only one I have read by a member of 1^st Parachute Battalion.  The firsthand experiences of several difficult operations makes for fascinating reading; Curtis was one of only a handful who fought in North Africa, Sicily and Arnhem.  However, I found the descriptions of the early days of the British Airborne Forces particularly interesting; not just the development of parachuting techniques and equipment, but also the men’s training in unconventional warfare.

It is one thing to read the War Diaries and other official histories; it is quite another to read about the same events in the language of the individual soldier.  In Tunisia, 1^st Parachute Brigade spent several weeks in Tamera, but to the troops, it was ironically called “Happy Valley”, with the high ground termed “Shell-Shock Ridge”.  Nearby hills were known as “Bowler Hat” and “The Pimple”.  In Curtis’ memoirs, he used a unique spelling of the Arabic call that became the paratroopers’ battle cry; to Curtis, it was “Who-oooh Mohamad!”

Throughout the book, the language is direct and rather conversational in tone, but becomes much more vivid when describing combat.  Curtis describes the sensations of battle:  the sights, sounds, even smells, as well as his emotional responses to such experiences.

Reg Curtis wrote The Memory Endures in 2014, two years before he died at the age of 96.  This is an extraordinary personal story, and I highly recommend it.

The Memory Endures:  The Story of a Grenadier Guardsman and Pioneer of the Parachute Regiment, 1937 – 1945 is only available through Pilots Publishing.  All profits are donated to Support Our Paras, the charity specifically dedicated to supporting Airborne veterans.

Pilots Publishing: The Memory Endures

Support Our Paras

Supplies from the Sky: C.L.E. Containers

History and Development

Britain’s Airborne Forces were officially formed on June 22, 1940, when Prime Minister Churchill wrote a memorandum calling for the creation of parachute and glider units.  These new Airborne units were originally similar to the Commandos, tasked with conducting raids in occupied Europe for sabotage, intelligence-gathering, and demoralizing the enemy.  As time went on, the Airborne Forces grew, and their role changed from raiding to capturing and holding key objectives ahead of conventional forces.  The 1^st and 6^th Airborne Divisions spearheaded the invasions of Sicily and Normandy, in July 1943 and June 1944, respectively.  The advancements in Airborne capabilities in the four years from creation to D-Day were extraordinary.  One of the most important developments was that of providing supplies to the Airborne troops.

C.L.E. containers and wicker panniers on display at the Memorial Pegasus in Benouville, Normandy.  Author’s photograph.

In early June 1940, the Royal Air Force established the Central Landing School at R.A.F. Ringway in Manchester.  The School was created to train pilots and aircrew in emergency parachuting for escaping crippled aircraft.  After the Prime Minister issued his memorandum in late June, the School found itself tasked with training soldiers in parachuting, and a handful of Army personnel were assigned to Ringway to assist the R.A.F. both with training and administration.

By September 1940, the School was renamed the Central Landing Establishment, or C.L.E.  Eventually, the C.L.E. consisted of three units:  the Parachute School, the Glider Training Squadron, and the Development Unit.  This last unit was given the task of designing specialized equipment to support the new Airborne Forces, with an emphasis on the delivery of supplies.

In those early days, there was little enthusiasm for the Airborne Forces in either Army or R.A.F. senior command.  After all, Hitler threatened to invade Britain, and the military was more concerned with preparing for a known threat than developing a new and experimental form of warfare.  However, the Prime Minister insisted, and the R.A.F., quite reluctantly, transferred a handful of Armstrong Whitworth Whitley bombers to Ringway for parachute and glider training.

The Whitley was chosen as it was becoming obsolete as a front-line bomber because of its limited range and payload.  It was not much better suited for dropping paratroopers.  There was room for ten men to sit rather uncomfortably on the floor of the fuselage; if they were lucky, a few mattresses were provided to provide padding and insulation.  The bomb-bay doors were replaced with a simple hatchway, and the men took turns dropping through the hole.

In those early, experimental days of 1940 and 1941, very little equipment was carried by the paratroopers while jumping; some method, therefore, had to be found for delivering their weapons and ammunition.  The C.L.E.’s Development Unit conducted numerous experiments with air-dropped kit bags and weapon valises, large reinforced canvas bags, and wicker panniers.

Some early British Airborne equipment was based on German items; this was true for the helmet and the first “step-in” parachutist’s smock or “jumping jacket”.  Additionally, the German Airborne used bomb-shaped supply containers which were air-dropped via parachute; the C.L.E. determined to develop a similar “bombcell container” for British use.

The result was the C.L.E. Container Mark I, which was a hinged tube long enough to hold rifles and light machine guns; it was made from plywood with a metal framework.  One end had a fitting for a parachute, and the other end had a “percussion head” or “crash dome” attached.  The percussion head was a primitive shock absorber; it was designed to collapse upon impact, thereby reducing the amount of force imparted on the container’s contents.  The percussion head was detachable and easily replaced, so that the rest of the container could be reused.  A battery-powered beacon could be attached to the container to make it easier to find in the dark.  By early 1943, the Mark I was joined by the Mark I.T., which was similar in size and appearance, but made entirely of sheet metal.  There was also the Mark III, which had the same diameter, but was eight inches shorter.  Additionally, the Type E and Type F Containers were adopted; these were rectangular in shape, and designed specifically for radio equipment.

In April 1944, the 1st and 6th Airborne Divisions took part in a large-scale exercise in preparation for the invasion of occupied Europe.  In this photograph, two paratroopers attach a C.L.E. container to the hardpoint of a Douglas Dakota.  Note that the static line has already been attached, and the cradle is being fitted to the hardpoint.  This appears to be a Mark I container.  Photo from the Imperial War Museum (H 37727).

The containers could be attached to hardpoints on the exterior of an airplane’s fuselage; each hardpoint had a mechanical release operated by the pilot.  The Type E and F containers had attachment points built into the lid, but the cylindrical containers had to be fitted with a cradle which was then attached to the hardpoint.  Additionally, the cylindrical containers could be carried and dropped from the bomb rack of a standard bomber, which had the advantage that no additional training or aircraft modifications were required.  Typically, the containers were fitted with static line parachutes, although some applications required a drogue parachute to deploy the main canopy.

In February 1942, the C.L.E.’s Development Unit was renamed the Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment.  Later that year, the R.A.F. first started using the Douglas Dakota (the Lend-Lease version of the American C-47); it was the best cargo and transport aircraft of the war.  For dropping paratroopers, the Dakota was modified by adding seats and a static line, and the soldiers jumped from a side door, which was considered by the troops to be vastly superior to dropping through the hole of a converted bomber.  These aircraft were further modified by adding six hardpoints under the fuselage for carrying containers.

As time went on, methods were developed so that paratroopers were able to drop with their weapons and other equipment, reducing their dependency on the supply containers during the initial drop.  However, the Airborne Forces grew from small raiding forces to full divisions intended to take and hold vital objectives until relieved by ground forces; aerial resupply became essential for providing ammunition, rations, medical supplies, and all the other items necessary to fight and survive on the battlefield.  Aerial resupply was also used extensively in the Far East, where heavily-laden trucks found it difficult to navigate the poor roads and dense jungles found in Burma.

The containers continued to be used after World War II, although they were re-named; the initials “C.L.E.” were retained, but the name “Container, Central Landing Establishment” was replaced with “Container, Light Equipment”.  They were last used operationally in 1956, when 3^rd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, dropped into Egypt during the Suez Crisis.  The Mark I and Type E containers were considered obsolete by 1960, but the other containers were still used for training purposes at least through the 1960’s.

C.L.E. Containers:  Variants and Details

The C.L.E. Mark I Container was made from a metal framework faced with plywood; it was constructed as two halves that were then hinged together to form a cylinder.  It was closed with two external latches.  The Mark I was 6 feet 2 ½ inches in length, with a diameter of 1 foot 2 inches; it weighed 103 ½ pounds empty, with a maximum loaded weight of 350 pounds.

The C.L.E. Mark I.T. Container was the same length as the Mark I (6 feet 2 ½ inches).  However, it was made entirely of metal, and took the form of a flat-bottomed cylinder.  It was somewhat heavier at 135 pounds, but had the same maximum loaded weight of 350 pounds.  Like the Mark I, it closed with two external latches.  After World War II, the Mark I.T. was referenced as the Mk. 1 (T).

April 1944; another photograph from the same exercise as above.  Soldiers maneuver C.L.E. containers from trucks to the waiting aircraft.  The shape indicates these containers are Mark I.T. variants.  Photo from the IWM (H 37700).

The C.L.E. Mark III Container was shorter than the Mark I at 5 feet 6 ½ inches.  It was completely cylindrical, with a diameter of 1 foot 2 inches.  The Mark III was made of either all-metal or metal-framed plywood construction.  The Mark III weighed 113 ½ pounds empty; the original maximum loaded weight was 350 pounds, but after extensive use the maximum weight was revised to 400 pounds.  Unlike the earlier containers, the Mark III had an internal locking mechanism; a rectangular cutout at the parachute end gave access to the locking handle.  By 1943, the Mark III was intended to replace the earlier containers, unless a specific load required the greater length.  Post-war manuals reference the Mark III as the Mk. 3.

The Type E Container was rectangular in shape with a hinged lid, and was designed specifically for dropping the Number 18 wireless/telegraphy set.  While the 1943 manual does not list the size of the Type E, it does give the weight as 89 pounds empty, or 190 pounds when loaded with the No. 18 W/T set; the 1960 manual does not reference the Type E.

Type E and Type F containers; illustration from Air Publication 2453, Volume I, Section 2, January 1943.

The Type F Container was also rectangular, but longer than the Type E; it was 5 feet 8 ½ inches long, and 1 foot 2 inches tall by 1 foot 2 inches wide.  The Type F could carry several different wireless/telegraphy sets, specifically the No. 11, 19, 21 or 22 sets.  The container weighed 92 pounds empty; the loaded weight varied depending on the type of W/T set carried, but the maximum weight was 340 pounds.

Regardless of type, the training manuals stated that three or four men were needed to handle a loaded container*.

Other Methods

Another item developed for dropping supplies was the wicker pannier, which was essentially a very large wicker basket.  There were two halves, the top being slightly larger than the bottom so it could fit over it.  The two halves were not attached; there were no latches or hinges.  Instead, the two halves were lashed together with webbing straps.  This gave the advantage that the size of the load did not have to be precise; the pannier could be expanded as needed.  The top half had four rope handles at the corners.  The wicker pannier had a maximum loaded weight of 500 pounds, greater than any of the “bombcell” containers.

Typically, two panniers were bundled together; this was referred to as the “daisy chain” method, and naturally allowed for the panniers to be dispatched in half the time.  One pannier was stacked on top of the other, and they were attached with lightweight ties.  Each pannier had its own parachute, but with different lengths of static line; this would cause them to open at different times, breaking the ties and separating the two panniers.

Wicker panniers loaded in a Douglas Dakota; they are stacked and ready for a “daisy chain” drop.  Illustration from Air Publication 2453, Volume I, Section 5, Chapter 2, January 1943.

A variant of the Dakota was designed specifically for dropping pannier loads; a series of rollers was added to the floor to make it easier to move the panniers to the door for the drop.  With a pair of panniers having a combined weight of up to 1000 pounds, the rollers were necessary for the “daisy chain” method.  It was this type of aircraft which was piloted by Flt. Lt. David Lord, V.C., when he was shot down over Arnhem.

Some supplies were bundled together and fitted to a cargo parachute without the use of a container; this method became increasingly common as the war progressed.

The Drop

When first adopted, the C.L.E. containers were dropped in the middle of the “stick” of paratroopers to make it easier for the soldiers to find their weapons and equipment.  As time went on, there was less reliance on the containers for the initial drop, and the containers could be dropped before, after, or even simultaneously with the paratroopers.  A delayed-opening device was developed for the cargo parachute which made it safer to drop the containers alongside the paratroopers.

Operation Varsity, the crossing of the Rhine, March 1945.  The container in the foreground is a Mark III; the rectangular opening for the latching mechanism’s operating handle can be clearly seen.  Photo from the Imperial War Museum (BU 2531).

Most resupply drops were made from about 600 feet, regardless of type of aircraft or containers used.  However, for some operations, a fast-moving fighter-bomber could carry three or four bombcell containers and get through heavy anti-aircraft fire more easily than a large bomber or cargo plane; this method was primarily used for high-priority supplies or for clandestine operations, such as dropping supplies to the various Resistance organizations.

The standard cargo parachute had a 28-foot canopy, although smaller parachutes of 18 feet and 24 feet were also made.  The cargo parachutes were made in a variety of colors so that supply drops could be color-coded.  Different types of supplies, such as rations, ammunition, and medical equipment, could be designated by the color of parachute; another method would be to color-code the supplies intended for different units.  There was not a set system, and the color-coding was varied for each operation.

Operation Market Garden, September 1944.  A Type F container is recovered.  Photo from the National Army Museum.

While the R.A.F. naturally provided the aircraft and pilots, loading and dispatching the containers was the responsibility of the Royal Army Service Corps.  While the bombcell containers were deployed mechanically by the pilot or his designee, the wicker panniers required specially-trained Air Dispatchers to fly in the cargo hold and maneuver the panniers to the door.  Other R.A.S.C. troops were assigned to the Airborne Divisions who were responsible for gathering the supplies from the drop zones and distributing them to the rest of the Division.

Reenacting Tips

Original C.L.E. containers are highly prized on the collector’s market.  I have personally only seen originals in museums, and have never seen one in the United States.

My reenacting unit is very privileged to own a reproduction of the C.L.E. Mark III Container.  Several years ago, a member of the unit sent me an interesting proposal:  he was a professional machinist, and wanted to build a reproduction container.  He offered to make the reproduction at no charge for his labor, but requested that the unit pay for materials.  However, he had only seen photographs and asked if I had access to any schematics.  As unit leader, I quickly approved his proposal.  I had recently acquired a copy of the 1960-dated Military Parachutists Manual.  Even though published well after World War II, the manual included a chapter on resupply containers, including the Mark I.T., Mark III, and Type F.  The chapter contained line drawings, measurements, and weight tables; I scanned the entire chapter and sent it to my friend.

The Mark III (or Mk. 3) container as illustrated in the Military Parachutists Manual (Air Publication 4215 / War Office 9514), January 1960.

The result was a reproduction of the Mark III Container.  Due to the limitations of the sheet metal available, the reproduction is slightly shorter than the original, and significantly lighter in weight.  However, I am responsible to single-handedly store and transport it, so I am very grateful it is not the full weight.  The crash dome is made from fiberglass and is somewhat fragile; however, the internal locking mechanism functions like the original.  I am very pleased with the finished product, and it has been a tremendous asset for our living history events.  We primarily use the reproduction container for public displays, particularly at air shows.  We have also used it at tactical reenactments, including events based on the Oosterbeek perimeter during Operation Market Garden.

Reproduction C.L.E. Container Mark III at a public display.  Author’s photograph.

*My favorite film is A Bridge Too Far; however, while the scene where the young soldier carries a loaded container over his shoulder is very dramatic, it is also highly unrealistic.

Sources

By Air to Battle:  The Official Account of the British First and Sixth Airborne Divisions
His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1945

Military Parachutists Manual
Air Publication 4215, War Office Code 9514
Section 6, Chapter 3:  “Supplies Dropping Containers”
January 1960

Bouchery, Jean, and Charbonnier, Phillipe
D-Day Paratroopers:  The British, The Canadians, The French
Histoire & Collections, 2004

Gregory, Barry
British Airborne Troops
MacDonald & Jane’s, 1974

Tanner, John, General Editor
RAF Airborne Forces Manual:  The Official Air Publications for RAF Paratroop Aircraft and Gliders, 1942-1946
RAF Museum Series, Volume 8
Arms and Armour Press, 1979
[Includes Reprints of Air Publications 2453 (January 1943) and 2453A (July 1945)]

The website of the Airborne Assault Museum
www.paradata.org.uk

A Brief History of the British 1st Airborne Division

The following is a very short history of the 1st Airborne Division; I plan to write a more extensive version in a future article.

The British Army’s Airborne Forces were first created in June 1940.  Prime Minister Winston Churchill had been impressed by the German use of parachute and glider troops during their invasion of France and the Low Countries, and sent a memorandum to the Chiefs of Staff requesting that Britain develop a similar capability.

Originally, Airborne Forces were conceived as raiding forces to perform small-scale operations in occupied Europe for intelligence gathering, destruction of specific targets, and demoralization of the enemy.  Accordingly, No. 2 Commando was trained in parachuting and eventually became 1^st Parachute Battalion.  2^nd and 3^rd Parachute Battalions were then created; the three battalions comprised 1^st Parachute Brigade.

Paratroopers in 1942.  They are wearing the early “step-in” parachute smock, based on the German design, prior to the adoption of the camouflaged Denison smock.  Photograph from the archives of the Imperial War Museum (TR 178).

Britain’s first use of airborne troops was a small raid against an Italian aqueduct near Tragino in February 1941.  This was followed by the first significant Airborne action, Operation Biting, in February 1942.  C Company, 2^nd Parachute Battalion, attacked a German radar installation on the French coast at Bruneval; along with a radar specialist from the RAF, they captured key components of the radar, and were evacuated by sea by the Royal Navy.  The operation was a complete success.

1^st Parachute Brigade was then sent to North Africa, attached to British 1^st Army, in support of the Operation Torch landings in November 1942.  Each of the three battalions performed a separate operation.  The Brigade was then reunited and kept in the front lines for several months in the bitter fighting in Tunisia.  It was here that the British Airborne earned their nickname of the “Red Devils” for their ferocious fighting ability.  It was also where they adopted their war cry of “Waho Mohammed”, inspired by the natives’ calls from hilltop to hilltop.

Meanwhile, back in Britain, Airborne Forces were rapidly growing.  The Parachute Regiment was formed in August 1942, and its cap badge adopted in May 1943.  All Airborne troops wore the distinctive maroon beret and the divisional flash depicting the Greek hero Bellerophon, riding the winged horse Pegasus.  1^st Airborne Division was created, including 2^nd Parachute Brigade and 1^st Air-Landing Brigade, which were flown in gliders, along with supporting elements from the artillery, engineers, medical corps, and others.  These new units were transported to Tunisia to join with the now-veteran 1^st Parachute Brigade.  They were joined by 4th Parachute Brigade, which had been raised in the Middle East.

Bellerophon riding Pegasus, the insignia worn by all British Airborne Forces.

In July 1943, the Allies launched Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily.  1^st Air-Landing Brigade took part in the initial invasion, capturing the vital Ponte Grande Bridge near the beachhead.  Then, as British 8^th Army pushed up the island’s east coast, 1^st Parachute Brigade captured the Primosole Bridge.  Losses in both operations were heavy, but their vital objectives were taken.  Once Sicily had been secured, the Allies invaded mainland Italy.  2^nd and 4th Parachute Brigades took part in this operation, and 1^st Airborne’s commander, Major-General George Hopkinson, was killed in action.  The Division returned to Britain to refit and replace losses; 2^nd Parachute Brigade was detached from the Division and remained in Italy.

1^st Airborne received a new commander, Major-General Robert “Roy” Urquhart.  In the summer of 1944, 6^th Airborne Division spearheaded the Invasion of Normandy, while 1^st Airborne was kept in reserve.  Several airborne operations were conceived to support the Allied breakout from the beachheads, but were all cancelled.

In September 1944, the Division took part in the epic Battle of Arnhem, part of Operation Market-Garden.  The Division found itself surrounded, out-numbered and out-gunned; they fought extremely bravely, but their relieving force never arrived.  Out of 10,000 men, only 2000 escaped across the Rhine; the rest were killed or captured.  The Division was never brought back to strength and was disbanded in November 1945.

Sources

By Air to Battle:  The Official Account of the British First and Sixth Airborne Divisions
His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1945

Harclerode, Peter
Para! Fifty Years of the Parachute Regiment
Arms & Armour Press, A Cassell Imprint, 1992
Reprinted by Brockhampton Press, Hodder Headline PLC Group, 1999

Officers of 2nd Parachute Battalion in North Africa, December, 1942. Photo from the Imperial War Museum (NA 351).

Major-General John Frost

One of my greatest heroes is Major-General John Frost.  This should not be a surprise; I am fascinated by the history of the British Airborne Forces, and Frost was one its most important figures.

Several months ago, I was asked to write an article for my World War II living history club’s newsletter.  I was specifically requested to write a biographical article.  I decided immediately to write about Frost.  With the permission of the editors of “The Front”, the newsletter of the California Historical Group, I am posting the article here.

Major-General John Frost, CB, DSO & Bar, MC (1912 – 1993)

John Dutton Frost was a British Army officer best known for his association with 2^nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment.

Frost was born in India, to British parents, on 31 December, 1912. He was educated in England.  As his father was an Army officer, it was only natural that he attended the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.  He graduated in 1932, and was commissioned into the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles).  After promotion to Captain, Frost was sent abroad and worked with the Iraq Levies, whose primary function was guarding RAF airfields.  Frost and his fellow officers formed a traditional hunt club, although they hunted jackals instead of foxes.

Frost in the uniform of the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles)

Originally, Frost enjoyed his time in Iraq. However, when war with Germany was declared in 1939, Frost became frustrated and felt the war would pass him by.  He returned to Britain in 1941; the hunt club gave him an engraved hunting horn as a parting gift.  Frost spent a short time with the Cameronians, but soon volunteered for the recently-formed Airborne Forces and was assigned to 2^nd Parachute Battalion.

1^st Parachute Battalion had been in existence for about a year, but 2^nd and 3^rd Battalions were just being formed.  The three battalions comprised 1^st Parachute Brigade, and were composed entirely of volunteers.  Many of the officers were newly-commissioned; because of his experience, Frost was made 2^nd Battalion’s Adjutant.

Shortly after Frost completed his parachute training, he was given command of 2^nd Battalion’s C Company, known as “Jock Company” as it was almost entirely made of Scotsmen.  In February, 1942, C Company conducted a raid against an enemy radar station at Bruneval, France, near Le Havre.  This was Britain’s first major airborne operation.  Frost and his men overwhelmed the garrison, while an RAF radar expert and several engineers dismantled the radar array.  The Company was evacuated by the Royal Navy, and the radar components were taken back to Britain for study.  The raid was considered a complete success and was widely publicized, although the exact reason was not released to the media.  However, it justified the existence of Airborne Forces to the military establishment, and provided a boost to British morale when it was desperately needed.

In the autumn of 1942, Frost was given command of 2^nd Parachute Battalion.  1^st Parachute Brigade was attached to British 1^st Army and sent to North Africa.  After the Operation Torch landings in November, each of the three battalions was assigned a separate parachute operation to help the breakout from the beachhead.  1^st and 3^rd’s operations went well, but 2^nd Battalion was not as lucky.  They were ordered to drop on two airfields, Oudna and Depienne, near Tunis.  Shortly after arrival, Frost received word via radio that 1^st Army had cancelled their drive to Tunis; Frost was forced to lead his men on a fighting retreat across the desert to friendly lines.  They held defensive positions during the day and moved at night; Frost would sound his hunting horn to keep the men from getting separated in the dark and the rough terrain.  Casualties were heavy, but the Battalion survived.  Many of the survivors credited Frost’s tenacity and leadership for their escape.

1^st Parachute Brigade continued to fight as standard infantry.  As British 8^th Army pushed from Egypt and Libya, the enemy attempted to break through the less experienced 1^st Army.  1^st Parachute Brigade saw more action than any other unit in 1^st Army, as they were rushed to plug whatever weaknesses were found in the line.  Because of their maroon berets and their ferocious fighting ability, the British parachutists earned the nickname “The Red Devils”.

Once North Africa had been secured, the next move was the invasion of Sicily, in July 1943. After the initial landings, 1^st Parachute Brigade was dropped as part of the breakout.  Their objective was the Primosole Bridge over the Simeto River; unfortunately, the bridge’s importance was also recognized by the enemy, who reinforced the position.  1^st Parachute Brigade captured the bridge, but their ammunition ran out and they were forced off the objective.  They withdrew to the high ground south of the bridge; the leading elements of 8^th Army were then able to recapture the bridge.  1^st Parachute Brigade suffered numerous casualties, and were ordered to return to England to rest and refit.

In June, 1944, British 6^th Airborne Division played a significant role in the invasion of Normandy; 1^st Airborne remained in Britain as a reserve.  Numerous operations were planned for the Division, but cancelled.  In September, the Division took part in Operation Market Garden.  1^st Airborne was to seize the vital road bridge over the Lower Rhine in Arnhem, Holland, near the German border.  It was hoped this operation would outflank the heavily defended Siegfried Line and get the Allies across the Rhine and into the enemy homeland.

The dropping and landing zones were several miles away from the objective, and the enemy successfully engaged in blocking actions to delay the Airborne troops from reaching the bridge. Most of 2^nd Battalion made it to the north end of Arnhem bridge, along with elements of 1^st Parachute Brigade headquarters.  As Brigadier Lathbury was wounded on the march, Frost took command of the entire force at the bridge.  Heavy enemy fire from armored cars prevented the composite force from capturing the south end of the bridge.

The next day, a reconnaissance unit from the 9^th SS Panzer Division, which had been observing American movements in Nijmegen, attempted to cross Arnhem bridge from the south but were unaware of the British defensive positions.  British PIATs and anti-tank guns caused havoc.  2^nd Parachute Battalion continued to hold their position, but soon ran out of ammunition and other supplies.  The Germans brought in more and more reinforcements, both infantry and armor.  By the end of the fourth day, the British could no longer fight.  Most men were wounded, including Frost.  Those who were healthy enough to fight had no ammunition with which to do so, and were ordered to try to connect with the rest of the Division.  Frost and his men were taken prisoner and sent to a camp in Germany, where they remained until the end of the war.

Anthony Hopkins and Maj.-Gen. Frost on the set of “A Bridge Too Far”

After the war, Frost remained in the Army until 1968; he retired at the rank of Major- General. Frost was interviewed by Cornelius Ryan for the book A Bridge Too Far, first published in 1974.  Frost then served as a consultant for the film adaptation, released in 1977, in which he was portrayed by Anthony Hopkins (for my review of the film, click here).  In 1978, the town of Arnhem named the road bridge over the Rhine the John Frost Bridge.  Frost wrote an autobiography, A Drop Too Many, which was first published in 1980.

Plaque at the north end of the John Frost Bridge over the Lower Rhine, Arnhem, Netherlands.  Photo by the author’s spouse.

John Frost died on 21 May, 1993, at the age of 80. His widow donated his famous hunting horn to the Airborne Museum, Hartenstein, in Oosterbeek, where it can still be seen today.  For his leadership and personal bravery, he had been awarded the Military Cross and the Distinguished Service Order, with bar; he was also made a Companion of the Order of Bath.

Frost’s autobiography is available from Amazon:
A Drop Too Many by Maj. Gen. John Frost

Sources

Frost, John, Major General
A Drop Too Many
First published by Cassell Ltd, 1980, Republished by Leo Cooper, 1994

Peatling, Robert
Without Tradition: 2 Para 1941- 1945
Pen & Sword Books, Ltd., 1994

Frost’s hunting horn, displayed at the Airborne Museum, Hartenstein, Oosterbeek, Netherlands.  Photo by the author’s spouse.